Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 Introduction 5 Purpose and Scope of the Literature Review 5 Organization of the Review 6 Conceptual Framework 7 Defining Spiritual But Not Religious (SBNR) 7 Understanding Faith and Values Transmission 8 Non-Religious Values in Focus 8 Conclusion 9 References 9 Sociological Perspectives on Faith and Values Transmission 11 Secularization Read More
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Table of Contents
Purpose and Scope of the Literature Review 5
Defining Spiritual But Not Religious (SBNR) 7
Understanding Faith and Values Transmission 8
Non-Religious Values in Focus 8
Individualism and Pluralism 14
Integrative Framework of Faith Transmission 22
Developmental Readiness and Cognitive Capacity 22
Attachment Relationships and Emotional Bonds 23
Observational Learning and Modeling Behaviors 23
Reinforcement and Moral Development 24
Cognitive Processes and Moral Reasoning 24
Integration and Application in SBNR Families 25
Ethics, Morality, and Community Responsibility 29
Community and Global Awareness 30
Spirituality in SBNR Contexts 30
Interdisciplinary Approaches 34
Common Themes Across Disciplines 34
Developing a Holistic Spiritual Practice for SBNR Families 37
In recent decades, a significant demographic shift has occurred in the religious landscape, particularly in the United States, with a growing number of individuals identifying as “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR). This term encapsulates those who pursue personal spiritual experiences, often outside the confines of organized religion, and represents a movement toward individualized and non-institutionalized approaches to faith and meaning-making (Mercadante, 2014). Studies indicate that this group, while diverse, tends to prioritize personal authenticity, mindfulness, and connection with nature over adherence to traditional religious doctrines (Ammerman, 2013). The rise of the SBNR population coincides with broader societal trends, including secularization, pluralism, and the increasing focus on individualism in modern Western societies (Roof, 1999).
As SBNR parents seek to transmit their spiritual and ethical values to their children, they face unique challenges. The absence of established religious structures, rituals, and doctrines means that these parents must navigate the process of faith transmission without the institutional supports that religious families often rely on. This dynamic raises important questions: How do SBNR parents cultivate spirituality and values in their children? What role do family relationships and community settings play in this process? Addressing these questions is crucial, as the transmission of faith and values is central to identity formation, moral development, and social cohesion in modern families (Smith & Snell, 2009).
Faith and values transmission has traditionally been studied within the framework of organized religion, yet there is a growing need to understand how this process unfolds in SBNR families. This demographic shift has profound implications for the way spirituality is passed down across generations, and it calls for an integrated, interdisciplinary exploration of how families foster spiritual growth, ethical reflection, and meaning-making in the absence of religious institutions.
The purpose of this literature review is to explore the theoretical and empirical research on faith and values transmission, with a particular focus on SBNR families. By drawing from sociological, psychological, and theological perspectives, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play in transmitting spirituality and values from SBNR parents to their children. Given the lack of institutional frameworks in these families, it is critical to examine how parents compensate for this absence by fostering spiritual exploration, personal reflection, and ethical development within the home and through broader societal influences.
This literature review will engage with the following key questions:
Through an interdisciplinary lens, this review integrates theories from sociology, developmental psychology, and theology to develop a cohesive framework for understanding the complexities of faith transmission in non-religious families. This framework will later serve as the foundation for testing interventions in the quasi-experimental design of the broader project.
The review is organized into five main sections. Section 2 begins by establishing the conceptual framework for the study of faith and values transmission, defining key terms like spirituality, faith, and religion in the context of SBNR families. Section 3 provides sociological perspectives on faith transmission, focusing on the changing religious landscape, the role of the family in socializing children into spiritual values, and the implications of secularization. Section 4 explores psychological theories, particularly those related to child development, parent-child dynamics, and cognitive processes involved in belief system formation. Section 5 examines theological and philosophical perspectives, discussing how ethical and moral development can occur in SBNR contexts, where traditional religious teachings are absent.
Finally, Section 6 synthesizes these perspectives into an integrative theoretical model, which forms the basis for the quasi-experimental design that will test specific interventions aimed at supporting SBNR families in transmitting their faith and values. The conclusion draws together the major themes of the literature review and outlines future directions for research and practical applications.
References
Ammerman, N. T. (2013). Spiritual but not religious?: Beyond binary choices in the study of religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 52(2), 258–278.
Mercadante, L. A. (2014). Belief Without Borders: Inside the Minds of the Spiritual but not Religious. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Roof, W. C. (1999). Spiritual Marketplace: Baby Boomers and the Remaking of American Religion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Smith, C., & Snell, P. (2009). Souls in Transition: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of Emerging Adults. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Understanding the transmission of faith and values within “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) families requires a comprehensive exploration of the concepts and dynamics involved. This section delves into the definition and historical context of SBNR, clarifies the distinctions between faith, spirituality, and religion, and discusses how values are transmitted across generations, focusing on non-religious values that are universally recognized yet culturally varied.
The term “spiritual but not religious” has emerged as a significant cultural phenomenon in contemporary society, reflecting a shift away from traditional religious affiliations toward a more individualized approach to spirituality (Ammerman, 2013). Commonly, SBNR refers to individuals who seek personal spiritual experiences and meaning outside the boundaries of organized religion. This identity encapsulates individuals who seek spiritual experiences and personal growth outside the confines of organized religion, emphasizing personal meaning-making over adherence to institutional doctrines or rituals (Mercadante, 2014, 2020).
Historically, the rise of the SBNR movement can be traced back to the late 20th century, paralleling broader societal shifts toward individualism, secularization, and pluralism (Roof, 1999). The decline in traditional religious adherence, particularly in Western societies, led individuals to explore alternative spiritual practices that resonated with their personal beliefs and experiences (Baker & Smith, 2009). The emergence of New Age movements, holistic health practices, and mindfulness meditation contributed to the popularity of SBNR, as these practices emphasize personal experience and subjective interpretation of spirituality (Heelas & Woodhead, 2005).
Contemporary definitions of SBNR emphasize the individual’s quest for meaning, connection, and transcendence without the need for formal religious structures (Lahood, 2013). Spirituality in this context is often described as a personal journey that encompasses a sense of connection to something greater than oneself, which may include nature, the universe, or a higher power (Fuller, 2001). According to Mercadante (2020), SBNR individuals construct their spirituality through personal experiences, self-exploration, and selective integration of various beliefs and practices, creating a unique and personalized spiritual identity.
Mercadante’s (2020) research offers a nuanced understanding of the SBNR phenomenon by mapping and interpreting the lived experiences of individuals who identify as spiritual but not religious. She found that SBNR individuals often reject organized religion due to perceptions of rigidity, dogmatism, or irrelevance but remain deeply engaged in exploring existential questions and seeking personal transformation. Their spirituality is characterized by a focus on authenticity, self-development, and an individualized approach to meaning-making.
SBNR individuals prioritize personal spiritual experiences, mindfulness, and a connection to nature over adherence to institutional doctrines or rituals (Mercadante, 2014, 2020). They engage in practices such as meditation, yoga, and nature walks, which facilitate a direct and personal engagement with the transcendent or the sacred. This emphasis on experiential spirituality reflects a broader cultural trend toward subjectivity and individual agency in constructing spiritual identity.
Distinguishing between faith, religion, and spirituality is essential for understanding how values are transmitted in SBNR families. Faith is often understood as a deeply held belief or trust in certain principles or a higher power, which may or may not be linked to organized religion (Fowler, 1981). Religion typically refers to an organized system of beliefs, practices, and rituals shared by a community (Hill et al., 2000). Spirituality, on the other hand, is more fluid and personal, encompassing a range of beliefs and practices individuals adopt to explore their inner selves and their connection to the universe (Pargament, 1999; Mercadante, 2020).
In SBNR families, faith may manifest as trust in universal principles such as love, compassion, and interconnectedness. Spirituality becomes a personal journey of exploration and self-discovery, not necessarily tied to any specific religious tradition. Mercadante (2020) notes that SBNR individuals emphasize personal authenticity and self-guided exploration in their spiritual practices. This impacts how values are transmitted, as parents may prioritize fostering an environment where children are encouraged to develop their own spiritual understanding through exploration and reflection (King & Boyatzis, 2015; Mercadante, 2020).
The transmission of values in SBNR families often involves open dialogue, modeling behavior, and experiential learning. Parents engage in discussions about ethical dilemmas, encourage empathy through community service or engagement with nature, and support practices that promote mindfulness and self-awareness (Mercadante, 2014, 2020). This approach aligns with Mercadante’s (2020) findings that SBNR individuals value personal growth and ethical living over adherence to external doctrines.
While SBNR families may not adhere to specific religious doctrines, they often emphasize universal values such as honesty, integrity, compassion, and personal responsibility (Mercadante, 2020). These values are fundamental to personal development and social cohesion, transcending religious boundaries. Cross-cultural research supports the universality of these values, indicating that certain moral principles are widely recognized across different societies (Schwartz, 1994).
Mercadante (2020) highlights that SBNR individuals construct their moral frameworks based on personal experiences, rational reflection, and an inherent sense of ethics rather than relying on religious prescriptions. Parents in SBNR families may consciously integrate multicultural perspectives, promoting open-mindedness and respect for diversity (Bregman, 2014; Mercadante, 2020). They might expose their children to various cultural traditions and philosophies, encouraging appreciation for different ways of life and thought.
Moreover, studies indicate that SBNR individuals often report high levels of life satisfaction and well-being (Mercadante, 2020). This may be attributed to the flexibility and personal agency that SBNR offers, allowing individuals to tailor their spiritual practices to their unique experiences and beliefs. Brown (2020) found that non-religious spirituality can have a significant positive impact on health, contributing to increased well-being and resilience. By fostering environments that encourage reflection, ethical reasoning, and compassionate action, SBNR parents aim to instill values that guide their children’s behavior and decision-making processes (Mercadante, 2020).
The conceptual framework for understanding faith and values transmission in SBNR families involves recognizing the unique ways spirituality is defined and practiced outside traditional religious structures. Incorporating Mercadante’s (2020) insights into the lived experiences of SBNR individuals enriches our understanding of how personal authenticity, self-exploration, and individualized meaning-making shape the transmission of faith and values in these families. By exploring the historical context and contemporary interpretations of SBNR, distinguishing between faith, spirituality, and religion, and examining the transmission of universal values, we gain insight into the mechanisms by which SBNR parents impart beliefs and morals to their children. This framework highlights the emphasis on personal experience, critical thinking, and ethical living that characterizes SBNR approaches to parenting, setting the stage for further exploration of the sociological, psychological, and theological perspectives influencing this process.
Ammerman, N. T. (2013). Spiritual but not religious?: Beyond binary choices in the study of religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 52(2), 258–278.
Baker, J. O., & Smith, B. G. (2009). American Secularism: Cultural Contours of Nonreligious Belief Systems. New York, NY: NYU Press.
Bregman, L. (2014). The Ecology of Spirituality: Meanings, Virtues, and Practices in a Post-Religious Age. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press.
Brown, C. G. (2020). The spiritual but not religious: Understanding the impact of non-religious spirituality on health. Religions, 11(10), 493.
Fowler, J. W. (1981). Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.
Fuller, R. C. (2001). Spiritual, But Not Religious: Understanding Unchurched America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Heelas, P., & Woodhead, L. (2005). The Spiritual Revolution: Why Religion is Giving Way to Spirituality. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Hill, P. C., et al. (2000). Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30(1), 51–77.
King, P. E., & Boyatzis, C. J. (2015). Religious and spiritual development. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science (7th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 975–1021). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Lahood, G. (2013). Relational spirituality, part 2: Explorations in transpersonal sociology. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 45(2), 146–164.
Mercadante, L. A. (2014). Belief Without Borders: Inside the Minds of the Spiritual but not Religious. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Mercadante, L. A. (2020). The spirituality of “not being religious” in America: Mapping and interpreting lived experience. Religions, 11(10), 513.
Pargament, K. I. (1999). The psychology of religion and spirituality? Yes and no. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9(1), 3–16.
Roof, W. C. (1999). Spiritual Marketplace: Baby Boomers and the Remaking of American Religion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50(4), 19–45.
Smith, C., & Denton, M. L. (2005). Soul Searching: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism & Collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
The sociological study of faith and values transmission delves into how religious beliefs, spiritual practices, and moral values are conveyed across generations within the broader context of societal structures and cultural shifts. In contemporary American society, characterized by increasing secularization and the rise of the “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) demographic, understanding these transmission processes requires a nuanced analysis of both traditional theories and emerging trends.
Secularization theory has long served as a foundational framework in the sociology of religion, proposing that as societies modernize, the influence of religion diminishes in both public and private life. Max Weber (1930) introduced the concept of the “disenchantment of the world,” suggesting that rationalization and scientific advancement lead to a decline in traditional religious authority. This perspective posited that as societies embrace rational thought and empirical evidence, religious explanations for natural and social phenomena become less persuasive, leading to secularization.
Peter Berger (1967) initially supported the secularization thesis, arguing that modernity inherently leads to a decline in religious influence. However, Berger later revised his stance, acknowledging the resilience and adaptability of religion in modern contexts (Berger, 1999). He noted a global resurgence of religion and spirituality, indicating that secularization is not a linear or universal process. Berger’s shift highlights the complexities within secularization theory, suggesting that modernization can coexist with sustained or even renewed religious vitality.
Critics of secularization theory, such as José Casanova (1994), argue that the theory overlooks the transformation of religious expression rather than its outright decline. Casanova emphasizes that religion continues to play a significant role in the public sphere, adapting to contemporary societal changes. He posits that rather than diminishing, religious institutions and beliefs evolve, finding new expressions and relevance in modern contexts. This adaptability is evident in various movements where religion intersects with social and political issues, suggesting that secularization involves both decline and transformation.
Ronald Inglehart and Wayne Baker (2000) further challenge the straightforward relationship between modernization and secularization. Their research indicates that while economic development and modernization often correlate with shifts in cultural values towards secular-rational orientations, this does not necessarily equate to a decline in religious beliefs. Traditional values can persist even in modern societies, and there can be a simultaneous embrace of modernity and religious belief. This perspective aligns with the observation that in the United States, despite high levels of modernization, religious belief and practice remain comparatively robust (Smith & Snell, 2009).
The concept of “multiple modernities,” introduced by Shmuel Eisenstadt (2000), provides a framework for understanding how different societies experience modernization in diverse ways, leading to varied outcomes regarding religion and secularization. This approach recognizes that while some societies may experience a decline in religious authority with modernization, others may witness a revitalization or transformation of religious practices and beliefs. In the U.S. context, this suggests that secularization may manifest not as a decline in spirituality but as a shift towards individualized and privatized forms of religious expression, as seen in the rise of the SBNR population.
Understanding these complexities is crucial for analyzing faith and values transmission among SBNR families. The decline of institutional religion does not necessarily mean a decline in spirituality or moral values; instead, it reflects a transformation in how these elements are experienced and conveyed. SBNR parents may eschew traditional religious institutions while still actively engaging in spiritual practices and imparting values to their children.
Central to the sociological examination of faith transmission is the role of socialization processes within the family. Socialization theory examines the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, norms, and social skills necessary to function effectively within their society (Giddens, 2006). This lifelong process shapes an individual’s identity and influences behaviors, enabling the transmission of culture and contributing to societal stability. Socialization ensures that societal norms and values are passed from one generation to the next, maintaining continuity within a culture.
There are two primary phases of socialization: primary socialization and secondary socialization. Primary socialization occurs during early childhood within the family unit, where foundational attitudes, language, and behaviors are established. The family is considered the most significant agent at this stage, as it is where children first learn societal expectations and develop their initial sense of self (Parsons & Bales, 1955). Secondary socialization takes place later through institutions such as schools, peer groups, religious organizations, and media, introducing individuals to new roles and environments beyond the family (Berger & Luckmann, 1966).
Theoretical perspectives on socialization offer various insights into how this process functions. Structural functionalists like Talcott Parsons view socialization as essential for maintaining societal stability and cohesion, teaching individuals the shared norms and values that facilitate cooperation and order (Parsons, 1951). Symbolic interactionists focus on the development of the self through social interaction, emphasizing the role of communication and the interpretation of symbols. Charles Horton Cooley’s concept of the “looking-glass self” suggests that individuals form their self-identity based on how they perceive others see them (Cooley, 1902). George Herbert Mead expanded on this by explaining how people internalize societal roles through stages of development, leading to a mature sense of self capable of functioning within the social framework (Mead, 1934).
Building upon the general concept of socialization, religious socialization refers specifically to the process by which individuals acquire religious beliefs, practices, values, and identities. It is a subset of socialization that focuses on the transmission of religious culture from one generation to the next (Cornwall, 1988). The family plays a pivotal role in religious socialization, serving as the primary context where religious norms and values are introduced and reinforced.
In traditional religious contexts, parents and family members impart religious beliefs through deliberate instruction, participation in rituals, and modeling of religious behaviors within a supportive community framework (Boyatzis & Janicki, 2003). Activities such as attending religious services, observing religious holidays, prayer, and religious education contribute to the internalization of religious identity in children. This process is supported by secondary agents of socialization, including religious institutions, schools, and peer groups, which reinforce the religious teachings and practices introduced by the family.
Research has consistently shown that the family is the most influential factor in a child’s religious development. Studies by Bengtson et al. (2013) demonstrate that strong intergenerational bonds and consistent religious practice within the family significantly increase the likelihood of religious continuity across generations. The quality of the parent-child relationship, parental religiosity, and the frequency of religious activities together contribute to effective religious socialization.
In the context of modern societies, the process of religious socialization faces new dynamics due to increasing pluralism, secularization, and the rise of individualized spirituality. For “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) families, traditional mechanisms of religious socialization may be absent or adapted. Without reliance on formal religious institutions or prescribed doctrines, SBNR parents may emphasize personal exploration, critical thinking, and experiential learning in their approach to spirituality (Smith & Denton, 2005). They might encourage open discussions about beliefs, support participation in diverse spiritual practices, and model values such as compassion and mindfulness in everyday life.
In their extensive research on religious parenting, Christian Smith and his colleagues provide critical insights into how parents transmit faith and values in contemporary America. In “Religious Parenting: Transmitting Faith and Values in Contemporary America” (2019), Smith, Ritz, and Rotolo explore the strategies parents employ to pass on their religious beliefs. They find that parents are the most significant influence on their children’s religious lives, more so than religious institutions or peer groups. Parents use a combination of intentional practices, such as prayer, religious discussions, and moral teachings, and unintentional methods, such as modeling behaviors and creating a religious home environment.
In “Handing Down the Faith: How Parents Pass Their Religion on to the Next Generation” (2021), Smith and Adamczyk delve deeper into the mechanisms of faith transmission. They argue that successful transmission relies on parents embodying their faith authentically and integrating it into daily family life. The authors highlight that parents who are warm, affirming, and set clear expectations regarding religious involvement tend to have children who retain their religious identity into adulthood. This relational approach contrasts with more authoritarian or distant parenting styles, which are less effective in transmitting faith.
For SBNR families, the absence of institutional support and established doctrines presents unique dynamics in faith transmission. Without formal religious structures, SBNR parents may emphasize personal exploration, critical thinking, and experiential learning in their approach to spirituality (Roof, 1999). They might encourage open discussions about beliefs, support participation in diverse spiritual practices, and model values such as compassion, integrity, and mindfulness in everyday life. This approach aligns with Smith and colleagues’ findings that the authenticity and relational quality of parental engagement are crucial for effective transmission.
The rise of individualism and pluralism in religious and spiritual affiliation has become a significant focus in contemporary sociological studies, reflecting broader cultural shifts in modern society. Robert Wuthnow (1998) introduced the concept of a shift from “dwelling” to “seeking,” where individuals move away from institutional religious identities towards a more exploratory and autonomous approach to spirituality. In his analysis, “dwelling” refers to a traditional mode of religious life anchored in established institutions, doctrines, and communal practices. In contrast, “seeking” represents a fluid and individualized spiritual journey, where personal experience and self-discovery are paramount.
This transition to “spiritual seeking” involves crafting personalized belief systems, often integrating elements from multiple religious and philosophical traditions—a process termed “spiritual bricolage” (Ammerman, 2013). Nancy Ammerman’s research highlights how individuals engage in “lived religion,” where spirituality is woven into the fabric of everyday life through practices such as meditation, yoga, nature walks, and acts of service. These practices are not necessarily tied to formal religious participation but are expressions of personal meaning-making and self-transcendence. Ammerman (2014) found that people often draw from a variety of spiritual resources to construct their own narratives of purpose and identity, emphasizing authenticity and personal relevance over institutional affiliation.
Charles Taylor’s (2007) notion of the “subjective turn” in modern culture underscores this trend towards individualism. Taylor argues that contemporary society places a premium on personal authenticity, self-expression, and the pursuit of self-fulfillment. He describes how individuals have shifted from being embedded in collective religious identities to embracing a more inward, individualized spirituality. This “subjective turn” leads people to seek spiritual experiences that resonate deeply with their inner lives and personal aspirations, contributing to the growth of the SBNR population.
Taylor introduces the concept of the “buffered self,” where individuals perceive themselves as autonomous agents capable of crafting their own spiritual paths, contrasted with the “porous self” of pre-modern societies, where people were more connected to communal and transcendental realities. This shift has profound implications for how spirituality is practiced and transmitted, as it moves away from external authorities and communal rituals towards personal interpretation and experience.
Wade Clark Roof (1999) further explores this phenomenon in his study of the baby boomer generation, noting that many have shifted from organized religion to a more individualized spirituality that values personal growth and self-realization. Roof describes how this generation, shaped by social movements and cultural changes of the 1960s and 1970s, often seeks spiritual fulfillment outside traditional religious institutions. They tend to favor practices that align with their personal experiences and worldviews, leading to a diverse tapestry of spiritual expressions.
The implications of this shift towards individualism and pluralism are significant for faith and values transmission within families. SBNR parents may approach the transmission of spirituality to their children differently than those affiliated with organized religion. Without a prescribed set of doctrines or institutional support, these parents might emphasize open dialogue, exploration, and the development of personal values. They may encourage their children to question, reflect, and discover their own spiritual paths, fostering an environment that values autonomy and individual choice.
However, this individualized approach can present challenges in maintaining continuity of beliefs and practices across generations. The lack of a shared framework or community can make it more difficult to establish consistent spiritual traditions within the family. Vern Bengtson et al. (2013) found that strong familial bonds and parental modeling are crucial for the transmission of religious beliefs. In the context of SBNR families, the emphasis on individualism may require new strategies for nurturing spiritual and moral development in children.
The pluralistic nature of contemporary spirituality means that children are exposed to a wide array of beliefs and practices, both within and outside the family. This exposure can enrich their understanding but may also lead to fragmentation or confusion if not navigated thoughtfully. SBNR parents may need to provide guidance in helping their children make sense of this diversity, fostering critical thinking and ethical discernment.
Moreover, the societal emphasis on personal choice can influence how younger generations perceive spirituality and religion. The accessibility of information through technology and media allows for unprecedented exploration of different spiritual paths. While this can empower individuals to find practices that resonate with them, it can also lead to a consumerist approach to spirituality, where beliefs and practices are adopted superficially without deeper engagement.
Sociologists like Zygmunt Bauman (2001) have discussed the concept of “liquid modernity,” where social structures are in constant flux, and individuals must navigate a rapidly changing cultural landscape. In such a context, the transmission of stable faith and values becomes more complex. SBNR parents may need to balance fostering individual exploration with providing a grounding in core values and ethical principles.
Additionally, the rise of individualism intersects with broader societal trends such as secularization, globalization, and technological advancement. These factors collectively contribute to changing perceptions of authority, tradition, and community. For SBNR families, creating meaningful connections and a sense of belonging may involve seeking or forming alternative communities, such as spiritual groups, online forums, or service organizations that align with their values.
In conclusion, the rise of individualism and pluralism in religious and spiritual affiliation reflects a significant cultural shift impacting how faith and values are transmitted within families. The movement from “dwelling” to “seeking” signifies a departure from institutional religion towards personalized spirituality that prioritizes personal authenticity and self-fulfillment. Understanding this trend is essential for exploring the unique experiences of SBNR parents as they navigate the complexities of transmitting their spiritual beliefs and values to the next generation.
The impact of media and technology on faith and values transmission has become increasingly significant in the digital age. The proliferation of the internet, social media, and digital devices has transformed how individuals access information, communicate, and form communities. These technological advancements have profound implications for how spirituality and values are transmitted within families, especially among SBNR individuals who may utilize alternative platforms for spiritual exploration and expression.
Heidi Campbell (2013) introduces the concept of “digital religion,” highlighting how online environments facilitate new forms of religious practice and community building. The internet provides access to a vast array of spiritual content, including blogs, podcasts, online forums, and virtual communities that cater to diverse spiritual interests. This accessibility allows individuals to explore different beliefs and practices beyond their immediate environment, fostering a personalized spiritual journey.
For SBNR parents, digital media can serve as a resource for both personal spiritual development and for engaging their children in discussions about spirituality and values. Online platforms offer opportunities to share spiritual experiences, participate in virtual rituals, and connect with like-minded individuals. These interactions can supplement or replace traditional religious socialization methods, providing alternative avenues for faith transmission.
However, the influence of media and technology on faith transmission is multifaceted. While digital platforms can facilitate spiritual exploration, they can also introduce challenges. The vast amount of information available online can lead to fragmentation of beliefs, exposure to contradictory viewpoints, and difficulties in establishing a cohesive spiritual identity. SBNR parents may need to navigate these complexities when guiding their children’s spiritual development.
Paul McClure (2017) examines how digital media usage correlates with spirituality and religiosity among emerging adults in the United States. His study suggests that higher internet use is associated with lower levels of religious affiliation but does not necessarily diminish personal spirituality. This indicates that while traditional religious participation may decline with increased digital engagement, individualized forms of spirituality can persist or even flourish.
The role of social media in shaping values and beliefs is also significant. Social media platforms can influence adolescents’ worldviews through exposure to diverse perspectives and peer interactions. For SBNR families, this means that children may encounter a wide range of spiritual and moral ideas online, which can both enrich their understanding and present challenges in maintaining consistent value transmission.
Moreover, technology can facilitate new forms of family interaction around spirituality. For example, families might engage in mindfulness apps together, participate in online meditation sessions, or share inspirational content. These activities can reinforce values such as mindfulness, compassion, and interconnectedness, aligning with SBNR emphases on personal experience and inner development.
In contrast, concerns arise regarding the potential for technology to distract from face-to-face interactions and the cultivation of deeper relationships, which are crucial for effective faith and values transmission. SBNR parents may need to balance the use of technology with intentional, in-person engagements that foster meaningful connections and discussions about spirituality.
Overall, media and technology play a complex role in the transmission of faith and values in contemporary society. For SBNR families, leveraging digital resources can provide valuable support in navigating spiritual journeys, but it also requires mindful engagement to ensure that technology enhances rather than hinders the relational aspects of faith transmission.
Community and Social Networks
Community and social networks play a critical role in shaping an individual’s faith and values, serving as both a context for socialization and a source of support and reinforcement for beliefs and practices. Social capital theory, as articulated by Pierre Bourdieu (1986) and James Coleman (1988), provides a framework for understanding how relationships and networks provide resources that facilitate social cooperation, mutual support, and the transmission of cultural norms, including religious and spiritual values.
In religious contexts, congregations and faith communities offer significant social capital by reinforcing shared beliefs, providing moral guidance, and fostering a sense of belonging and identity (Putnam, 2000). These communities create networks of trust and reciprocity, which enhance the effectiveness of faith transmission across generations. Regular participation in religious services and community activities strengthens social ties and embeds individuals within a supportive network that reinforces religious norms and values.
For “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) families, the absence of traditional religious communities necessitates alternative forms of social capital and community engagement. Without the built-in support structures of organized religion, SBNR individuals and families may seek or create communities that align with their spiritual perspectives and values. This can include participation in meditation groups, yoga classes, environmental organizations, or other groups that reflect their ethical and spiritual commitments.
The rise of online communities and social networks has also provided new avenues for SBNR individuals to connect with like-minded others. Barry Wellman’s (2001) concept of “networked individualism” describes how individuals in modern societies navigate multiple, overlapping social networks that are less centralized and more personalized. This shift from group-based communities to individualized networks affects how values and beliefs are transmitted and reinforced. Online platforms, social media groups, and virtual communities offer spaces where SBNR individuals can share experiences, resources, and support, contributing to their spiritual development.
However, this decentralized network structure can present challenges in maintaining consistent faith and values transmission within families. The diversity and fluidity of online communities may lead to exposure to a wide array of beliefs and practices, which can both enrich and complicate an individual’s spiritual identity. SBNR parents may need to guide their children in critically engaging with these diverse influences, helping them to develop discernment and a coherent set of values.
Smith and Denton (2005) highlight the significance of peer influence during adolescence, noting that teenagers are more likely to adopt the religious practices and values of their peers. In traditional religious settings, strong social networks within congregations can reinforce faith transmission. For SBNR adolescents, peer groups may be more varied in their spiritual orientations, potentially leading to a more individualized and eclectic spiritual identity. This underscores the importance for SBNR parents to be proactive in discussing spirituality and values with their children and facilitating connections with peers who share similar perspectives.
Robert Wuthnow (1998) discusses the concept of “loose connections” in modern society, where individuals participate in multiple, often transient groups rather than being deeply embedded in a single community. While this can offer flexibility and exposure to diverse perspectives, it may also reduce the strength of social ties and the effectiveness of socialization processes. For SBNR families, fostering strong, meaningful connections within their social networks is crucial for supporting the transmission of faith and values.
The lack of a cohesive community can present challenges for SBNR parents in transmitting faith and values. Without the reinforcement of a broader community, parents may need to be more intentional in creating opportunities for their children to engage with others who share similar values. This can involve organizing family activities centered around shared values, such as volunteering, participating in community service projects, or attending events that promote spiritual growth. Engaging in these activities not only reinforces the family’s values but also connects them with a wider network of individuals and groups that support their spiritual journey.
Furthermore, social networks influence the formation of social identities and the development of moral frameworks. Social identity theory suggests that individuals derive a sense of self from their membership in social groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). For children and adolescents, identifying with a group that shares their values can reinforce their commitment to those values. SBNR parents may need to facilitate experiences that allow their children to develop a positive social identity aligned with their spiritual beliefs.
Extended family networks can also play a role in faith transmission. Grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins can provide additional models of spiritual engagement and support. However, if extended family members hold different beliefs, this can introduce complexity into the socialization process. Open communication and respect for diverse perspectives become important in navigating these dynamics, allowing children to understand and appreciate various viewpoints while maintaining their own spiritual identity.
In conclusion, community and social networks are integral to the transmission of faith and values. For SBNR families, the challenge lies in building and maintaining social networks that support their spiritual perspectives in the absence of traditional religious structures. By intentionally cultivating relationships and communities that reflect their values, both in person and online, SBNR parents can enhance the effectiveness of faith transmission to the next generation. This requires a proactive approach to community-building and an emphasis on open dialogue, shared experiences, and mutual support within their social networks.
Understanding the sociological perspectives on faith and values transmission reveals that while traditional mechanisms may be less prevalent among SBNR families, the core processes of socialization, modeling, and relational engagement remain crucial. The works of Christian Smith and colleagues emphasize the central role of parents in shaping their children’s spiritual lives, regardless of religious affiliation. By fostering authentic relationships, integrating spirituality into daily life, and adapting to the modern context of media and globalization, SBNR parents can effectively transmit their values and beliefs to the next generation.
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The psychological study of faith and values transmission delves into the internal mechanisms and interpersonal dynamics that facilitate the conveyance of beliefs, morals, and spiritual practices from parents to children. In the context of “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) families, where traditional religious structures may be absent, understanding these psychological processes becomes essential. By integrating developmental theories, attachment relationships, cognitive and social learning frameworks, we can construct a coherent model that elucidates how faith and values are transmitted within SBNR families.
At the core of this psychological framework is the recognition that faith and values transmission is a multifaceted process influenced by developmental readiness, emotional bonds, observational learning, and communication practices. This integrative approach acknowledges that children do not passively receive beliefs but actively construct their understanding through interactions with their environment and significant others (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The interplay of these factors creates a dynamic environment in which children internalize the spiritual beliefs and moral values of their parents.
Children’s ability to comprehend and internalize spiritual concepts is contingent upon their cognitive development. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development outlines how thinking evolves through distinct stages, each characterized by increasing complexity and abstract reasoning (Piaget, 1952). Recognizing these stages allows parents to present spiritual concepts in ways that are developmentally appropriate.
In the Preoperational Stage (ages 2 to 7), children’s thinking is symbolic but limited by egocentrism and concrete interpretations. Parents can introduce spirituality through simple stories, rituals, and symbols that appeal to the child’s imagination (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). For example, engaging in nature walks and highlighting the wonder of the natural world can instill a sense of awe and connectedness.
As children enter the Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7 to 11), they develop logical reasoning about concrete events. Parents can discuss moral values and ethical behaviors, using real-life examples to illustrate concepts like fairness, honesty, and kindness. Activities that involve helping others or participating in community service can reinforce these values experientially (Flanagan et al., 1998).
During adolescence, the Formal Operational Stage emerges, characterized by the capacity for abstract and hypothetical thinking (Piaget, 1952). Adolescents can grapple with existential questions and complex spiritual ideas. This stage aligns with Erik Erikson’s stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion, where individuals explore personal identity, including spiritual beliefs and values (Erikson, 1968). Adolescents may question the beliefs imparted by their parents and seek to form their own spiritual identity (Marcia, 1980). SBNR parents can support this exploration by encouraging independent thought, providing resources, and engaging in open-ended discussions without imposing rigid expectations.
The quality of the parent-child relationship significantly impacts the effectiveness of faith transmission. Attachment Theory, developed by John Bowlby (1969) and expanded by Mary Ainsworth (1978), posits that secure attachments formed in early childhood foster a foundation of trust and openness. Securely attached children perceive their parents as reliable sources of comfort and guidance, which extends to spiritual matters (Ainsworth et al., 1978).
Granqvist and Kirkpatrick (2004) found that secure attachments correlate with a positive receptivity to parental spiritual influence. Their meta-analysis suggests that securely attached individuals are more likely to adopt their parents’ religious or spiritual beliefs, as the trust established in the relationship facilitates acceptance of parental guidance. In contrast, insecure attachments may lead to resistance or indifference toward parental beliefs.
In SBNR families, where institutional religious support may be lacking, the parent-child bond becomes the primary conduit for transmitting faith and values. By cultivating a nurturing and responsive relationship, parents enhance their children’s willingness to engage with and internalize spiritual teachings. Strategies to foster secure attachments include being responsive to children’s needs, providing consistent care, and engaging in shared activities that promote connection (Siegel & Hartzell, 2013).
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes that children acquire behaviors, attitudes, and values through observation and imitation of significant others (Bandura, 1977). Parental modeling is a potent mechanism for faith transmission, particularly in the SBNR context. When parents consistently demonstrate behaviors aligned with their spiritual beliefs—such as mindfulness practices, compassionate actions, or ethical decision-making—children observe and internalize these values (Bandura, 1986).
The congruence between parents’ professed beliefs and their actions reinforces the authenticity of the values being transmitted. Smith and Adamczyk (2021) emphasize that “lived faith,” where parents integrate spirituality into daily life, is more influential than formal instruction alone. Their research indicates that children are more likely to adopt values that they see genuinely practiced by their parents. For example, if parents prioritize environmental stewardship, engaging in recycling, and sustainable living, children witness the practical application of these values.
Moreover, modeling extends to how parents handle challenges and conflicts. Demonstrating resilience, empathy, and ethical decision-making in difficult situations provides powerful lessons for children. This form of observational learning contributes to the development of moral reasoning and ethical behavior (Grusec & Hastings, 2007).
Communication Practices and Meaning-Making
Effective communication is essential for facilitating the internalization of faith and values. Open, empathetic dialogue allows children to express their thoughts, ask questions, and explore spiritual concepts in a supportive environment (Roehlkepartain et al., 2006). Daniel Goleman’s concept of emotional intelligence underscores the importance of parents’ ability to recognize and manage emotions, fostering a climate of trust and understanding (Goleman, 1995).
In SBNR families, where spirituality may be individualized and experiential, parents can encourage meaning-making by:
This approach aligns with the SBNR emphasis on personal spirituality and the journey toward self-discovery. It also helps children develop critical thinking skills necessary to navigate a pluralistic society with diverse belief systems.
The use of reinforcement strategies influences the adoption of desired behaviors and values. B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory suggests that positive reinforcement strengthens behavior by providing rewarding consequences (Skinner, 1953). Parents can reinforce behaviors that reflect spiritual values, such as acts of kindness or expressions of empathy, through praise, recognition, or privileges.
However, fostering intrinsic motivation is crucial for genuine internalization. Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory posits that supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness enhances intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). SBNR parents may focus on helping children understand the inherent satisfaction derived from acting in alignment with their values, rather than relying solely on external rewards. This involves:
Children’s moral reasoning evolves alongside their cognitive development. Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development outline a progression from obedience-based reasoning to principled ethical thinking (Kohlberg, 1981). Parents can facilitate this progression by engaging in discussions about moral dilemmas, encouraging perspective-taking, and exploring the reasons behind ethical decisions.
In SBNR families, where moral values may not be grounded in religious doctrine, parents can:
This approach supports the development of a moral compass based on reasoned principles and personal conviction, aligning with the SBNR emphasis on individual ethical responsibility.
We can construct a coherent framework that illustrates how faith and values are transmitted within SBNR families by integrating the above frameworks:
This integrated approach addresses the unique challenges of faith transmission in SBNR families, where traditional religious structures are absent. It emphasizes the central role of the parent-child relationship and the intentionality of parental engagement in nurturing spiritual and moral development.
The psychological framework underscores that faith and values transmission in SBNR families is a holistic process influenced by multiple interconnected factors. Effective transmission relies on parents’ ability to:
By integrating these elements, SBNR parents can create a nurturing environment that facilitates the internalization of spiritual beliefs and moral values. This approach not only aids in transmitting faith across generations but also equips children with the tools to navigate their own spiritual journeys, fostering resilience and ethical responsibility in a complex, pluralistic society.
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Theological and philosophical perspectives offer a rich framework for understanding how faith and values are transmitted within “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) families. While traditional religious institutions provide established doctrines and communal practices, SBNR individuals often seek spirituality through personal interpretation, experiential engagement, and ethical living. This section explores how SBNR parents utilize hermeneutics, rituals, ethical philosophies, and personal spirituality to convey beliefs and values to their children, aligning with contemporary understandings of spirituality and moral development.
In the absence of formal religious doctrines, SBNR parents engage in personal interpretation and meaning-making to construct their spiritual narratives. Hermeneutics, the study of interpretation, becomes a vital tool for understanding and conveying spiritual concepts (Thiselton, 2009). Parents draw from diverse sources—philosophy, literature, nature, and personal experiences—to create a cohesive spiritual framework that resonates with their values and life experiences (Bender, 2010).
SBNR parents often adopt a constructivist approach to spirituality, where meaning is actively constructed through reflection and experience (Schneider & Krug, 2010). This perspective emphasizes authenticity, personal growth, and the continuous quest for understanding. By engaging in open discussions with their children about life’s big questions—such as the nature of existence, purpose, and morality—parents encourage critical thinking and self-exploration (Mercadante, 2014).
For instance, parents might discuss philosophical concepts from thinkers like Thich Nhat Hanh or Eckhart Tolle, exploring themes of mindfulness, presence, and interconnectedness (Hanh, 1999; Tolle, 2005). These conversations allow children to develop their interpretations, fostering a personalized spirituality that aligns with their experiences and insights.
Rituals and symbols play a significant role in transmitting spirituality by providing tangible expressions of abstract concepts (Grimes, 2014). SBNR families often create personalized rituals that reflect their values and foster a sense of connection. These might include practices like meditation sessions, gratitude journaling, nature walks, or celebrating solstices and equinoxes to honor natural cycles (Smith & Denton, 2005).
Such rituals serve multiple purposes: they establish routine, create shared experiences, and provide opportunities for reflection and bonding. Symbols, whether natural objects like stones and feathers or crafted items like mandalas, can hold personal significance and act as focal points for contemplation (Heelas & Woodhead, 2005). By integrating these elements into family life, parents offer children concrete ways to engage with spiritual ideas and develop their sense of meaning.
Transmitting ethical values is central to faith transmission in SBNR families. Without prescribed moral codes from religious institutions, parents often turn to philosophical ethics and humanistic principles to guide moral development (King & Boyatzis, 2015). SBNR spirituality frequently incorporates humanistic perspectives that emphasize individual potential, self-actualization, and inherent goodness (Taylor, 2007). Parents encourage their children to cultivate qualities like empathy, integrity, and authenticity. By promoting self-awareness and personal responsibility, parents help children develop a strong moral compass grounded in their values and experiences. This process involves reflecting on one’s actions, understanding their impact on others, and striving to act in ways that align with personal and communal well-being (Lapsley & Narvaez, 2006).
Drawing from virtue ethics, SBNR parents focus on cultivating character traits that contribute to a flourishing life (Clement, 2010). Rather than adhering to external rules, this approach emphasizes the development of virtues through practice and reflection. Parents model behaviors such as kindness, honesty, and courage, providing examples for children to emulate (King & Furrow, 2004). Engaging in activities that promote empathy and altruism, like volunteering or environmental conservation efforts, reinforces these values experientially (Wuthnow, 1995). Such involvement not only nurtures moral development but also fosters a sense of community responsibility and connectedness to the larger world.
SBNR spirituality often encompasses a global perspective, recognizing the interconnectedness of all beings and the environment (Bregman, 2014). Parents may emphasize themes of social justice, ecological sustainability, and universal compassion. By discussing global issues, encouraging cultural awareness, and participating in community initiatives, families embody values of empathy and collective responsibility (Ammerman, 2013).
This approach aligns with contemporary movements like environmentalism and human rights advocacy, reflecting a commitment to making a positive impact beyond the self. It also resonates with Joanna Macy’s concept of “the Great Turning,” which envisions a societal shift toward sustainability and interconnectedness (Macy & Brown, 2014).
“Spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) spirituality emphasizes personal experience, inner exploration, and the pursuit of meaning outside institutional frameworks (Fuller, 2001). In this context, parents create environments that nurture their children’s spiritual curiosity, encouraging them to ask questions, explore diverse ideas, and develop their own spiritual identities.
SBNR families prioritize personal experience as a primary source of spiritual understanding. Parents encourage children to trust their intuition and reflect on their feelings, fostering self-awareness and confidence in navigating spiritual matters (Schneider & Krug, 2010). This approach aligns with humanistic philosophies that emphasize authenticity and self-exploration.
Practices like mindfulness and meditation are integral to SBNR spirituality (Kabat-Zinn, 2013). These practices support emotional regulation, self-reflection, and a deeper connection to oneself and the world. Research indicates that mindfulness can enhance cognitive and emotional development in children, improving attention, empathy, and resilience (Greenberg & Harris, 2012). By incorporating mindfulness exercises—such as deep breathing or guided imagery—into family routines, parents provide tools for children to explore their inner experiences and develop a sense of presence and awareness (Hart, 2006).
Connection with nature is a significant aspect of SBNR spirituality. Parents may facilitate activities like hiking, gardening, or observing wildlife, encouraging children to experience awe and wonder in natural settings (Kahn & Kellert, 2002). This engagement fosters environmental awareness and a sense of responsibility toward the planet, aligning with values of interconnectedness and stewardship (Sponsel, 2012).
SBNR individuals often create personalized spiritual paths by integrating practices from various traditions—a process known as “spiritual bricolage” (Ammerman, 2013). Parents might introduce children to practices such as yoga, tai chi, or mindfulness meditation, drawn from Eastern philosophies and adapted for contemporary use (Bender & McRoberts, 2012). This exposure fosters openness, respect for diversity, and appreciation for global spiritual expressions. It allows children to explore different modalities and find practices that resonate personally, supporting autonomy in their spiritual development (Smith & Snell, 2009).
Allowing children to explore various spiritual practices supports their autonomy and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Parents encourage critical thinking by engaging in open discussions about philosophical questions, moral dilemmas, and diverse belief systems (Mercadante, 2014). This approach nurtures intellectual curiosity and prepares children to navigate a pluralistic society with confidence and integrity.
While emphasizing personal experience, SBNR spirituality often includes a commitment to social justice and community involvement (Bender & McRoberts, 2012). Parents may engage their families in community service, environmental activism, or charitable initiatives, translating spiritual values into action. Participating in these activities reinforces concepts of empathy, compassion, and responsibility toward others, aligning with the ethical imperative to contribute positively to society (Dalton et al., 2006).
The theological and philosophical perspectives on faith and values transmission illuminate how SBNR parents navigate spirituality outside traditional religious frameworks. By engaging in personal interpretation, creating meaningful rituals, emphasizing humanistic ethics, and fostering personal spiritual experiences, they provide a rich and adaptable environment for their children’s spiritual and moral development.
This approach aligns with contemporary understandings of spirituality as individualized, experiential, and deeply connected to ethical living and global awareness. It reflects a commitment to authenticity, personal growth, and contributing positively to the broader community. Through these practices, SBNR parents effectively transmit faith and values that are relevant and resonant in today’s diverse and evolving spiritual landscape.
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Bregman, L. (2014). The Ecology of Spirituality: Meanings, Virtues, and Practices in a Post-Religious Age. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press.
Clement, G. (2010). Care, Autonomy, and Justice: Feminism and the Ethic of Care. New York, NY: Routledge.
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Fuller, R. C. (2001). Spiritual, But Not Religious: Understanding Unchurched America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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The study of faith and values transmission in “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) families requires an interdisciplinary approach, drawing from sociological, psychological, and theological perspectives. Each discipline offers unique insights into how families shape spiritual identities and transmit core values. This section outlines key theoretical models from various fields, highlights common themes, and proposes a holistic framework for understanding SBNR transmission.
One of the most robust interdisciplinary approaches to understanding family dynamics and development is Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This model emphasizes that an individual’s development occurs within a series of nested environments, from the immediate family to larger societal and cultural contexts. In SBNR families, parents create microenvironments that reflect their values and spiritual priorities. These microenvironments interact with broader societal norms and cultural shifts that influence spiritual development, such as secularization and pluralism. For example, while parents may emphasize personal authenticity and experiential spirituality within the home, external influences like peers, digital media, and broader cultural trends also shape the spiritual identities of children.
In parallel, Family Systems Theory (Bowen, 1978) provides another important framework for understanding SBNR transmission. This theory posits that individuals cannot be fully understood apart from their family dynamics, as families operate as interconnected systems where changes in one member affect the whole. In the context of SBNR families, parents may model spiritual exploration or mindfulness practices, and these behaviors ripple through the family, influencing how children develop their own spiritual identities. The dynamic of relationality—parents responding to children’s curiosity, for instance—plays a significant role in how values and beliefs are passed down. SBNR families may also face unique relational challenges due to the absence of a shared religious institution or community, necessitating greater focus on intrafamilial support.
Both Bronfenbrenner’s and Bowen’s models stress the interplay between individual development and broader relational or environmental influences, which is essential for understanding the flexible, adaptive nature of SBNR spirituality.
Aside from attempts at fully integrated theories that might account for faith and values transmission among SBNR parents, several shared themes emerge across the fields of sociology, psychology, and theology, particularly around identity formation and meaning-making processes. These themes are critical for understanding how SBNR families navigate spirituality without institutional support.
Identity Formation: The development of spiritual identity in SBNR contexts emphasizes autonomy and self-discovery. Sociological perspectives (Ammerman, 2013) highlight the shift from communal religious identities to individualized spiritual pathways. Psychological theories, such as Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development (Erikson, 1968), emphasize the role of adolescence in identity formation, particularly around questions of faith and meaning. SBNR parents, by providing open spaces for questioning and exploration, facilitate this process by encouraging their children to pursue their own spiritual identities, often through practices like mindfulness or engagement with nature (Mercadante, 2020). Theological perspectives contribute by focusing on the existential aspects of identity—what it means to search for purpose outside traditional religious frameworks.
Meaning-Making Processes: Across disciplines, meaning-making is seen as central to spiritual development. In SBNR families, parents encourage children to engage in personal reflection, meditation, or discussions about existential questions, allowing for a personalized approach to spiritual growth. Psychological theories, such as constructivist approaches (Schneider & Krug, 2010), suggest that meaning is constructed through individual experience and interpretation, aligning with how SBNR families often reject prescriptive doctrines in favor of fluid, evolving spiritual understandings. Theological insights into meaning-making also emphasize the role of mystery and personal revelation, particularly in how SBNR individuals find meaning through nature or contemplative practices (Pargament, 1999).
To understand faith and values transmission in SBNR families, it is essential that we synthesize these insights from sociology, psychology, and theology along with the interdisciplinary theories into a holistic model. Each discipline provides unique contributions, but together, they offer a more complete picture of how spiritual identities are formed and passed down in non-traditional contexts.
Sociology provides the structural context—how broader societal trends like secularization, individualism, and pluralism influence spiritual identity formation within families. Sociology also examines how parents in SBNR families negotiate their roles as primary agents of transmission without the support of religious institutions (Smith & Snell, 2009). Psychology contributes the micro-level processes of development, focusing on the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral mechanisms by which children internalize values. Family dynamics, attachment theory, and cognitive development models help explain how children absorb spiritual practices through observation and participation. Finally, theological insights provide an existential dimension, considering how SBNR individuals grapple with questions of meaning, purpose, and transcendence outside the boundaries of institutional religion.
A proposed framework for understanding SBNR transmission begins with the family as a microcosm of spiritual development, drawing from Family Systems Theory. Parents model behaviors and facilitate environments that encourage exploration, meaning-making, and ethical reflection. The bioecological context, as per Bronfenbrenner, helps explain how external societal influences like secularization and digital spirituality shape the spiritual journeys of children within these families.
Additionally, identity formation and meaning-making—key themes across disciplines—must be recognized as central to SBNR transmission. This framework suggests that the transmission of faith and values in SBNR families is less about adherence to specific doctrines and more about fostering open, adaptive spaces where children are encouraged to explore, question, and construct their own spiritual identities. This process is continuous and dynamic, influenced by the relational environment of the family and broader societal trends, and it involves a blend of sociological, psychological, and theological components.
The proposed integrative framework for understanding faith and values transmission in SBNR families provides a holistic view of how spiritual and moral development occurs in the absence of organized religion. The application of sociological, psychological, and theological insights leads to several practical implications for both researchers and practitioners working with SBNR families. By recognizing the unique dynamics within these families, the framework offers guidance for fostering spiritual exploration, moral development, and emotional well-being.
From a sociological perspective, the framework highlights the importance of the family as the primary agent of spiritual transmission, especially in contexts where traditional religious institutions are not involved. Parents in SBNR families often carry the responsibility of guiding their children’s spiritual development through personal example, open dialogue, and intentional modeling of values like compassion, honesty, and mindfulness. This is a direct departure from the top-down transmission found in many religious traditions where the community and clergy play a large role (Smith & Snell, 2009).
Practically, this means that SBNR parents must be more intentional in creating spaces for spiritual discussion and exploration. Unlike religious families who rely on institutionalized rituals and teachings, SBNR parents should foster informal spiritual moments—conversations during family activities, shared meditation sessions, or nature walks—that promote reflection and inquiry. The absence of structured doctrinal teaching makes the parental role in shaping spiritual identity even more critical, requiring families to embrace flexibility and responsiveness to their children’s evolving spiritual questions and needs.
Furthermore, the framework acknowledges the broader societal trend of secularization, wherein the decline of institutional religion has coincided with an increase in individualized spirituality (Mercadante, 2020). This provides practical guidance for practitioners: rather than attempting to fit SBNR families into traditional religious frameworks, support services—such as spiritual coaching or counseling—should encourage families to explore diverse spiritual traditions and ethical frameworks, helping them cultivate a personalized spiritual practice that is meaningful and relevant to their specific experiences.
Psychological insights, particularly from developmental and social learning theories, offer practical strategies for fostering emotional and cognitive development in SBNR families. Identity formation is a central theme in the psychology of spiritual development, with Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (1968) emphasizing the importance of adolescence in exploring existential questions and forming a coherent spiritual self. In SBNR families, children are often encouraged to engage in personal reflection and exploration, allowing for the flexible construction of identity.
In practical terms, this highlights the need for parents to support autonomy in spiritual decision-making. Parents can encourage critical thinking by exposing their children to various spiritual and philosophical traditions, and by creating environments where children feel free to question, doubt, and seek their own answers. In this way, children are given the space to cultivate their own spiritual identities, without feeling pressure to conform to a specific belief system. Parents can further this process by modeling behaviors of openness and curiosity, promoting a household culture where spirituality is seen as a dynamic, evolving process rather than a set of rigid doctrines.
Moreover, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that children learn values and behaviors through observation and modeling. For SBNR families, this means parents should model mindfulness, empathy, and ethical decision-making in daily life. Activities like family meditation sessions, practicing gratitude, or volunteering together can be effective ways to transmit these values experientially. Such practices not only support the internalization of values but also foster emotional regulation and resilience, skills that are crucial for navigating the challenges of modern life.
Theologically, SBNR families operate in a space that often prioritizes personal meaning-making over collective religious dogma. The proposed framework integrates theological insights by recognizing the significance of existential exploration and the search for personal meaning in spiritual development (Mercadante, 2020). SBNR parents encourage their children to engage with life’s big questions—such as the nature of existence, purpose, and morality—without relying on predetermined answers from religious authorities.
In practice, this means that SBNR families should actively engage in conversations about meaning, purpose, and ethics, tailoring these discussions to the child’s developmental level. Parents can introduce concepts from a variety of spiritual or philosophical traditions, encouraging children to reflect on how these ideas resonate with their personal experiences. This approach fosters intellectual and spiritual curiosity while providing children with tools for constructing their own frameworks of meaning and morality.
In addition, incorporating rituals and symbols that reflect personal or family values—such as mindful practices, gratitude rituals, or nature-based celebrations—can provide children with touchpoints for exploring the sacred in their everyday lives. These practices need not be tied to any specific religious tradition; instead, they can be adapted to reflect the family’s unique spiritual journey, reinforcing values of self-awareness, gratitude, and interconnectedness.
Ultimately, the proposed integrative framework offers practical strategies for developing a holistic spiritual practice in SBNR families. By synthesizing sociological, psychological, and theological insights, the framework suggests that SBNR parents can promote spiritual and moral development in their children through intentional, reflective, and experiential practices.
By embracing the flexibility and adaptability inherent in SBNR spirituality, families can develop a holistic approach to faith and values transmission that reflects the complex, dynamic nature of contemporary spiritual life.
Ammerman, N. T. (2013). Spiritual but not religious?: Beyond binary choices in the study of religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 52(2), 258–278.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bowen, M. (1978). Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. New York, NY: Jason Aronson.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
Mercadante, L. A. (2020). The spirituality of “not being religious” in America: Mapping and interpreting lived experience. Religions, 11(10), 513.
Pargament, K. I. (1999). The psychology of religion and spirituality? Yes and no. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9(1), 3–16.
Schneider, K. J., & Krug, O. T. (2010). Existential-Humanistic Therapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Smith, C., & Snell, P. (2009). Souls in Transition: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of Emerging Adults. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Note: this is what GPT generated on Sep. 24th. At first glance it appears good, but I know that the scales are incomplete.
To test the proposed integrative theoretical model for faith and spiritual transmission among SBNR parents using the quasi-experimental design described in your project application, we would employ a methodical, phased approach that incorporates both quantitative and qualitative measures. The design could include Group 1 (control) and Group 2 (intervention) and assess how participating in an online platform like The Nearness impacts the transmission of faith and values from SBNR parents to their children.
Evan John