RESEARCH ESSAY #1 FINAL

RESEARCH ESSAY #1 FINAL – 1640 – FEBRUARY 14, 2025 CHRISTINE SAMPSON 213-216-700

Given the recent threat to our sovereignty, I have chosen to investigate the word “democracy” as it has morphed over time and space.

The Significance of the Word “Democracy” in the Dissemination of Knowledge Transfer through Time and Space

Introduction

Democracy has played a critical role in the transfer of knowledge across different periods and geographical spaces. Knowledge Democracy: Consequences for Science, Politics, and Media goes on to explain “The overwhelming success of democracy. Democracy is without a doubt the most successful governance concept for societies during the last two centuries.”⁹ Throughout the book you will see examples of how democracy as led to advancements in science, technology, and culture, as well as the spread of democratic values and human rights. Today the Merriam-Webster dictionary defines democracy as “an organization or situation in which everyone is treated equally and has the right to participate equally in management, decision-making, etc.” and “a country, state, etc. whose form of government is democracy : a political unit that has a democratic government.”¹⁰ By the end of the last century, the world had changed from having in 1900 not a single liberal democracy with universal suffrage, to 120 of the world’s 192 nations, or 62% having become such democracies.¹ This demonstrates the powerful consequences of a significant flow of knowledge throughout the world in just over one hundred years.

This essay explores the relevance of the word democracy in terms of historical evolution, global impact, and contemporary relevance in hopes of gaining a deeper understanding of how international societies were impacted over an extended period and geography.

Democracy as a Word

When the word “democracy” comes into play, many people’s first thoughts are words like freedom, equality, rights, voice, choice, and liberty. These concepts are deeply intertwined with the idea of democracy.

On an emotional level, democracy evokes feelings of empowerment, hope, pride, frustration, trust, and responsibility. This is not just a superficial reaction; these emotions stem from the very core of what democracy represents.

Moreover, this leads to a broader discussion of how democracy has evolved over time and across different societies, shaping itself into various forms of representation, such as direct democracy and indirect democracy. This evolution reflects the adaptability and resilience of democratic ideals in different contexts. “The History of Democracy: From Ancient Greece to Today is a testament to the enduring appeal of democratic governance. As societies continue to evolve, the ideals of democracy—equality, justice, and representation—will undoubtedly continue to shape the future of global politics.”²

Evolution of Two Democracies – Direct and Indirect

The purest form of “direct democracy” began as early as 507 B.C when the Athenian leader Cleisthenes introduced a series of political reforms known as demokratia, or “rule by the people”. Cleisthenes is often referred to as the “Father of Democracy” for his role in establishing this system.³ The most important historical reference of direct democracy is to assembly democracy in ancient Greek city-states, particularly Athens, where decisions were taken by an Assembly (Ecclesia) of some 1,000 male citizens.⁴ The world would be a very different place had this transfer of knowledge been universally adapted. This was, in my opinion, a true representation of “government by the people for the people”. But as of 2025, there are 195⁵ countries in the world and only one, and only since the 19^th century can boast direct democracy – Switzerland⁴ where their citizens are permitted to vote on laws and policies directly. I need to point out here that only men were allowed to vote. “When the modern Swiss state was created in 1848, it initially only granted voting rights to men over 20 years old. Women, who made up half the population, were excluded.”¹² And further proof that only men were involved in privileges of the vote in Direct Democracy in Switzerland  “Although there had been little experience with the device per se on a cantonal level, there was a consensus among the men writing the constitution in 1847 and 1848 that the referendum would prove a highly useful device for legitimizing their new structure of government-and therefore, warranted to be retained as a permanent part of the design.”¹³ It was only in February 1971 that “Women in Switzerland gained the right to vote in federal election.”¹¹

The definition of “indirect democracy” per David Robertson on www.helfulprofessor.com is “Representative democracy is a form of indirect rule by most of the electorate. In this system (the only widespread form of democracy in actual practice), political decision-making is done by a small number of people elected by the whole electorate”. (2003).

One might have assumed that democracy had a singular founder, but that is not the case. “Democracy has no founding figure, someone who embodies the ideal in popular thought – a Moses, Buddha, Confucius, Christ, Muhammad, or Marx.  Moses could lead his people to freedom; but no individual can lead a people to democracy.”¹⁴

In what is referred to as our Modern Era (19^th and 20^th centuries), indirect democracy systems were established in the United States (1787), Canada (1867), France (1958), England 1832 and Germany (1919)².

Historical Evolution of Democracy and Knowledge Transfer

“The History of Democracy from Ancient Greece to Today”² on Meshpedia provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of democracy from its origins in ancient Greece, my heritage, to modern-day forms. We see how the principles of democracy, established in ancient Greece, have evolved and adapted to meet the needs of modern societies. The core values of democracy—such as participation, equality, and freedom—remain the same, but contemporary democracies face new challenges and opportunities. These include managing political inequalities, embracing technological advancements for better governance, and ensuring that democratic processes are inclusive and transparent.

“Aristotle believed democracy is a form of government where the indigent and not the wealthy rule. He emphasized the importance of citizens participating in the administration of justice and public affairs. He believed true citizens are those who engage in these activities. Aristotle argued for a system of governance that balanced the interests of different groups.”⁵ However it is important to note that the right to vote was a privilege reserved for free male citizens who owned property, women, slaves, and foreigners did not have voting rights.⁶ This represented about 10-20% of the population^.7 No question that democracy has transformed over time and space to a much less oppressive format.

It is important that we understand the historical journey of democracy, so we can appreciate the importance of protecting and nurturing these principles in the face of current global issues like misinformation, political polarization, and the need for greater civic engagement. Democracy, I believe, is not a static concept but a dynamic system that requires constant vigilance and adaptation to remain effective and relevant. The concept of democracy is deeply intertwined with knowledge transfer and change across time and space.

CONCLUSION

Today, democracy is being challenged to its very core. The actions taken by the newly elected President of the United States, Donald Trump, will significantly impact our perception of democracy. For many, these actions have had a negative effect, often reversing hard-won progress. It’s important to note that more than 155 million Americans (63.9% of the population) voted and that over 49.8% of these Americans voted for Donald Trump¹⁵, which is why I say “many” rather than “most.” He has signed executive orders on Immigration, Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI), Paris Climate Agreement, Economic Policies (tariffs) and the Federal Hiring Freeze just to name a few.⁸ The consequences of his actions will be far-reaching, affecting the well-being of many countries worldwide and potentially influencing the democratic practices of some of those nations. Have we really progressed or is Donald Trump a modern-day Aristotle? I speak not to the genius of Aristotle but to his character – misogynist and his sense of superiority. Has the evolution of democracy fared well in the transfer of knowledge over time and space – I am conflicted. This evolution involved struggles of universal suffrage, human rights and the balance of power. Are we not at this point in a period of democratic regression?

Bibliography

⁸ Arnold, J. (2025) A Look at Executive Orders President Trump Has Signed, NewsNation,  Available at: www.newsnationnow.com/politics/donald-trump-executive-orders-signed. Accessed January 26, 2025.

⁵“Aristole on Democracy and Government.” ThoughtCo.com, www.thoughtco.com/aristotle-on-democracy-1119926. Accessed 26 Jan. 2025.

⁴“Democracy.“ Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 15 Jan. 2023, www.britannica.com/topic/democracy. Accessed 17 Jan. 2025.

¹⁰“Democracy.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/democracy. Accessed 3 Feb. 2025.

¹³ Fossedal. Direct Democracy in Switzerland. 2000. York University Library, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

¹⁴Gerring, John, et al. “Democracy.” The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. 19–44. Print.

³History.com Editors. “Ancient Greek Democracy – Athenian, Definition, Modern | HISTORY.” HISTORY, A&E Television Networks, 16 Oct. 2024, www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/ancient-greece-democracy.

¹“History of Democracy.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 Jan. 2025,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_democracy

⁹in ’t Veld, Roeland J. Knowledge Democracy: Consequences for Science, Politics, and Media. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010.

⁶JusCorpus. “A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF ARISTOTLE’S OUTLOOK ON DEMOCRACY – Jus Corpus.” Jus Corpus, 3 Apr. 2024, www.juscorpus.com/a-critical-analysis-of-aristotles-outlook-on-democracy.

¹²Kuenzi, R., Glatthard, J. and Renat Kuenzi, J.G. (2024) Switzerland’s exclusive democracy, SWI swissinfo.ch. Available at: https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/switzerland-s-exclusive-democracy/45860434 (Accessed: 03 February 2025).

¹⁵Lindsay, James M. “The 2024 Election by the Numbers.” Council on Foreign Relations, 18 Dec. 2024, www.cfr.org/article/2024-election-numbers.

⁷Rise, History. “What Was the Population of Ancient Greece?” HistoryRise, 21 Dec. 2024, https://historyrise.com/what-was-the-population-of-ancient-greece/

 ²“The History of Democracy: From Ancient Greece to Today.” MeshPedia, 8 Oct. 2024, www.meshpedia.com/the-history-of-democracy-from-ancient-greece-to-today/

¹¹Women’s suffrage in Switzerland. (2024, October 10). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland

RESEARCH ESSAY ^N1 – 1640 – FEBRUARY 14^J 2025 CHRISTINE SAMPSON 213-216-700 v2